Introduction to General Linguistic

ini juga tugas kuliah, buat paper linguistikk -__-

Introduction to General Linguistic

Course Outline:
1. The Properties of Human Language
2. Phonetics and Phonology
3. Morphology
4. Syntax
5. Semantics
6. Pragmatics and Discourse
7. Interdisciplinary Studies

1. The Properties of Human Language
 Displacement
It allows the user of the language to talk about things and events not present in the intermediate environment.
 Arbitrarines
There’s no “natural” connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.
 Productivity
Human can produce infinite number of utterances/sentences.
 Cultural transmission
Human acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.
 Discreteness
Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.

2. Phonetics and Phonology
 Phonetics
The study of human speech sound.
The study of all sounds that can be produced by human vocal tract.
 Human vocal tract
All the things that produce a sound, from lungs to mouth cavity.
 Phonology
The study of sound system of a language.

 Tongue
• Tip of the tongue
• Front tongue
• Middle tongue
• Back tongue

 Phonetics is classified into:
• Acoustic phonetics
Physical properties of sound waves.
• Auditory phonetics
The perception of the speech sound via the ear.
• Articulatory phonetic
How sounds are made or articulated.

 The process of producing sounds
• Initiation
The activity in the vocal tract which compresses or rarefies the air in the tract and hence initiates, or tends to initiate an airstream (eggresive or ingressive).
• Articulation
The activity in the vocal tract with interrupt or modulates, the airstream in such a way that specific type of sound is generated (place and manner of articulation).
• Phonation
The activity in the larynx which is neither initiatory nor articulatory in which the airstream is modulated by its passage through the glottis (voice and voiceless sounds).

 Vowels
The sounds that are produced with a relatively free flow air.
The sounds which are produced without a complete closure or the degree of narrowing which will produce audible friction.
 Consonants
Sounds which are produced with a complete closure or the degree of narrowing which will produce audible friction.

 Vowels are characterised with the:
• Horizontal tongue position→ front/back.
• Vertical tongue position→ high/low.
• Lip position→ round/unrounded.

 Consonants are characterised with:
• Phonation→ voiced/voiceless.
• Place or articulation→ bilabial, labiodental, alveolar, dental, palatal, velar, etc.
• Manner of articulation→ stop/plosive, fricative, nasal, etc.


 Phonological process
The change of sounds due to particular condition (e.g.: assimilation, coalescent, delition, etc).
 Assimilation
The change of different sounds to become similar.
 Phoneme
Minimal sequential constructive unit of the phonology in the build-up of the phonological forms of word. It can be identified by using minimal pair test/contrast incidental environment.
 Phone
Physical realisation of phoneme.
 Allophone
Different phone representating the same phoneme.

3. Morphology
The study of the internal structure of the words or the study of word information.

 The types of word formation
• Coinage
The invention of totally new item.
• Borrowing
Taking the words from other language.
• Compounding
Joining two separate words to produce a single form.
• Blending
Joining two words by taking part of the words to become a single form.
• Clipping
Shortening the form of the word.
• Back formation
• Conversion
• Acronyms
Example: VAT (Value Added Text) [væt]→ acronym
VAT (Value Added Text) [veieti]→ abbreviation
• Affixation (prefixes, infixes, suffixes)
o Class changing affixation
o Class maintaining affixation

 Affixes (inflectional and derivational)
• Inflectional (it doesn’t change the word class)
o Present (work)
o Past (worked)
o Continuous (working)
o Plural (books)
o Comparative degree (the tallest)
o Possessive (Indah’s book)
• Derivational (it change the word class or change the meaning)
o Agreement
o Realiz ation
o National ity
o Unkind
o Retype
o Kingdom
o Friendship

 Morpheme
The smallest unit of the language that has meaning.

 The types of morpheme
• Free morpheme/independent morpheme
Morpheme that can stand alone as a word
• Bound morpheme/dependent morpheme
Morpheme that can’t stand alone as a word (affixes). It should be attached to different free morpheme.

 Root
Irreducible core of the word.
 Stem
What remains when the inflectional affixes are removed.
 Base
What remains when affixes are removed.

4. Syntax
The study of sentence structure.
The study of larger units than phrases.

 Syntactic category
A family of expression that can substitute for another without loss of grammaticality.
• N : Noun
• V : Verb
• S : Sentence
• VP : Verb Phrase
• NP : Noun Phrase
• AP : Adjective Phrase
• PP : Prepositional Phrase
• Prep: Preposition




Example:
He found a cat.
Dea found a cat.
The old man found a cat.
The young lady found a cat.
My older brother found a cat.

5. Semantics
The study of the conventional meaning conveyed by the use of words and sentences of a language.

 Semantics features
• Conceptual meaning
• Associative meaning

 Synonymy
Two or more forms with very closely related meanings, which are often, but not always, intersubstitutable in sentences.
Example: broad-wide, hide-conceal, almost-nearly, answer-reply.
 Antonym
Two forms with opposite meanings.
Example; quick-slow, tall-short, male-female, alive-dead.
 Hyponymy
The relationship when the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another.
 Homophones
When two or more different (written) forms have the same pronunciation.
Example: bare-bear, see-sea, flour-flower, pail-pale, sew-so.
 Homonymy
When one form (written or spoken) has two or more unrelated meanings.
Example: bank (of a river) – bank (financial institution), pupil (at school) – pupil (in the eye), bat (flying creatures) – bat (used in sports).
 Polysemy
Relatedness of meaning accompanying identical forms which can be defined as one form (written or spoken) having multiple meanings which are all related by extension.
Example: head, used to refer to the object on top of your body, on top of a glass of beer, on top of a company or department.
 Metonymy
The relationship between words, based simply on a close connection in everyday experience, it can be based on a container-contents relation (bottle-coke; can-juice), a whole part relation (car-wheels; house-roof), or a representative-symbol relationship (king-crown; the president-the white house).


 The parts of speech
• Nouns are words used to refer to people, object, and so on, if they were all things.
• Adjectives are words used typically with nouns, to provide more information about the things.
• Verbs are words used to refer to various kinds of action and states involving the things in events.
• Adverbs are words used to provide more information about then actions and events.
• Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place, and other connections involving actions and things.

6. Pragmatics
The study of intended meaning.
The study of speaker’s meaning.

Example:
• Fall baby sale: menjual barang-barang perlengkapan bayi di musim gugur.
Literal meaning: penjualan bayi musim gugur.
• Fall massive baby sale: menjual barang-barang perlengkapan bayi besar-besaran.
Literal meaning: penjualan bayi besar-besaran di musim gugur.

 Presupposition
What the speaker assumes to be true or known by the hearer.
Example: “your brother is waiting outside.” It’s presupposition that you have a brother.

 Speech act
The type of ‘act’ performed by a speaker in uttering sentences. Speech act covers actions such as requesting, commanding, questioning, and informing.

 Speech act divided into:
• Direct speech act
The meaning of the utterance is spoken clearly/directly.
• Indirect speech act
There’s a meaning rather than utterance.

Example:
• Asking someone to do turn on the lamp:
“Turn on the lamp, please.” → Direct speech act
“It is dark.” (Statement) → Indirect speech act
“Can you turn on the lamp?” (Question) → Direct speech act.
• Asking the direction to the train station:
“Do you know the direction to the train station?” (Question) → Direct speech act.
“I don’t know the direction to the train station.” (Imperative) → Indirect speech act.
“Please, show me the direction to the train station → Direct speech act.

 Discourse analysis
• Cohesion
The connection or ties in the sentences or between the sentence and the other sentences.
Example: My father is at home. He is doing the housework. He likes doing the housework as this one of his habit. At the same time, my mother is preparing the lunch for the family.

My father is at home. The home is a good place to stay. Staying in a hotel makes us feel happy. Hotel can be classified into four styles.

7. Interdisciplinary Studies
 Sociolinguistic
The interdisciplinary study between language and society.
 Psyholinguistic
The interdisciplinary study between language and psychology.
The study of language acquisition.
 Applied linguistic
The study of the application of the theory of language.
 Historical linguistic
The study of the history of language or the study of language change.

 Synchronic study
The study of language in a given time.
 Diachronic study
The study of the language through the time.